An overview

In the year 118 B.C., Romans conquered the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea and immediately established the province of Illyricum, named after an Indo-European people who lived in the area. The Roman army and government, however, did not have a lasting peace in the province. The Illyrian tribes, led by the Dalmatae, organized a rebellion soon after the conquest. Its center was in Daelminium, today’s Duvno in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Numerous rebellions against the Roman rule followed until 35 B.C., when Octavian (Augustus) came with a strong army and reinforced the Roman hold over the province. But even under Octavian’s grip, the Illyrians organized a major revolt in the year 6 A.D. The ferocious struggle lasted three years under the command of Bato, leader of the Illyrian tribe Daesitiates. The rebellion was crushed, and, in due time, Illyricum was divided into two separate provinces, Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south.

The Illyrians accepted the Roman culture, language, religion, customs… and were Romanized in a relatively short period of time. On the other hand, the Romans built towns, roads, amphitheaters, and military camps… and expanded the empire to the north and east. Salona (Solin, near Split), the main city of Dalmatia, became known as a “miniature Rome.”

Spread of Christianity

Christian communities were established in Dalmatia and Pannonia in the first century after Christ. St. Paul states that he preached the Gospel “from Jerusalem and as far round as Illyricum.” (Romans 15:19) It cannot be stated for certain whether Paul means that he has preached the Gospel in Illyricum or that he has gone as far as the borders of that Roman province. However, an old tradition claims that Titus, a disciple of St. Paul, was the one who came to Illyricum to preach the Good news of Jesus.

It is known for certain that there was a Christian community with a bishop in Salona in the second half of the 1st century A.D. The best known bishop of Salona from the early times of Christianity was Duimus (Dujam, Duje) who, with a number of other Christ’s followers, was martyred in 304 A.D.

As it happened in other parts of the Roman Empire, many Christians were killed in Illyricum. The two best-known names among the martyrs are those of St. Duimus (Dujam) in Dalmatia (martyred in 304 A.D.) and St. Quirinus, bishop of Siscia/Sisak in Pannonia (martyred in 309 A.D.).

Christians were victims of Emperor Diocletian’s persecutions. The emperor was born in the city of Diocleia, province of Dalmatia, and after he abdicated the throne in 305 A.D., he returned to his native land. He built there a grandiose palace that is today the core of the city of Split in Croatia. Ironically, his mausoleum is today a Catholic cathedral. Another Dalmatian-born emperor, Constantine the Great, granted freedom to the Church, and Christianity rapidly spread throughout the empire, including the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia.

Monastic life in the Roman Illyricum

The earliest known monks who lived on the eastern shores of the Adriatic were Marin and Leon. They lived on the island of Rab at the end of the third century. Approximately at the same time, a monk named Felix lived near Salona. He was a victim of Diocletian’s persecution and became a well-known Christian saint.

Most of the historical knowledge about monks in this area of the Roman Empire comes from the writings of St. Jerome (c. 347-419 or 420), who was born in Stridon, province of Dalmatia. Although he lived most of his adult life in Rome and the Holy Land, he did pay attention to what was happening in his native land, especially concerning the monastic life there. For example, around 396 A.D., Jerome wrote to his friend, Bishop Heliodor (Heliodorus), also born in Dalmatia and who became a monk himself later in life, that his nephew Nepolitus wished to live a monastic life on the Dalmatian islands. Also, we know from Jerome’s other letters that his friend, monk Bonosa, lived on the Adriatic islands.

Around the year 405 A.D., Jerome praised his friend Julian for helping monks to build new monasteries on the Dalmatian islands and he recommended that Julian himself embraced monastic life. Clearly, there were not only individual monks living solitary lives on the islands but also groups of monks living in monasteries. Because of a pleasant climate, isolation, and safety, the Dalmatian islands were ideal places for monasteries and monastic life.

Furthermore, Hezihia (Hesychius), archbishop of Salona (405-426), indicated that numerous monks lived in his diocese at the time. Namely, in a letter to the pope, he asked for advice on how to deal with monks who were impatient to be ordained to the priesthood. Also, a regional church council in Salona (530 A.D.) forbade monastic superiors (abbots) to spend too much time outside the monastery walls because such practice diminished monastic discipline. Approximately from the same time, an inscription near Salona marks the burial place of Peter the monk, servant of Saint Peter. In the year 512 A.D., the pope addressed a letter to the bishops, priests, and monastic superiors and the people of Illyricum asking them to remain faithful to the traditions of the Roman Church.

The above points clearly indicate that the Church and monastic life flourished in the province of Illyricum during the centuries after the end of the persecutions (beginning of the 4th century) and before pagan Slavs, namely Croats, appeared on the eastern shores of the Adriatic in the 7th century.

The first contacts of Croatians with Christianity

In the year 610 A.D., the Byzantine Emperor Heraclitus, attacked from the northwest by the Avars and from the east by the Persians, enlisted the help of the Croatians, who had organized their state, known as White Croatia, on the other side of the Carpathian Mountains (today parts of Poland, Slovakia, Czechia, and Ukraine). After the expulsion of the Avars, the emperor, by a special pact, permitted the Croatians to take possession of the outlying Roman provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia.

In the year 641 A.D., Pope John IV, who was born in Dalmatia, came in contact with the newly arrived Croatians on the eastern shores of the Adriatic Sea. Namely, he sent Abbot Martin to ransom some captive Christians and collect relics of the local martyrs from the pagan newcomers. This visit marks the first known contact between the Roman church and Croatians, as well as the beginning of the efforts of Rome to reestablish Christianity and religious institutions after they were devastated by the newcomers. All of the early papal delegates and missionaries on the eastern side of the Adriatic were Benedictine monks. Besides Abbot Martin, among them there were men by the name of Gottschalk, Mayhard, Teuson, Gerard, Gebizon, and others.

The religious and political relations with Rome evolved so fast that in 679 A.D., the Croatians entered into a special treaty with Pope Agathon, by which they promised, they would neither raid nor appropriate neighboring lands. In turn, the Pope assured the Croats, “If they were invaded, God would be their protector, and St. Peter would lead them to victory.”

First known Benedictine monasteries

The Benedictines were the first who brought Christianity to the newly arrived Croatians, but there are no known historical documents that would indicate the exact year when the first monasteries were established among the Croatians. However, most historians agree that the first known such monastery dates from the beginning of the 9th century. Possibly some monasteries were founded earlier, but so far there is no proof of that.

It is believed that at the beginning of the 9th century, Duke Višeslav was baptized by a Benedictine abbot in the town of Nin, which was the first political and religious center of the Croatian domain along the Adriatic coast, and that a Benedictine monastery was established in the area. The second monastery, for which there is certain evidence, was built during the reign of Duke Trpimir (845-864). It was located in the vicinity of Solin (near Split).

When Croatian lands fell under Frankish rule (beginning of the 9th century), a number of new Benedictine monasteries were established, and, in accordance with Frankish customs, the Croatian dukes gave major support to Benedictines ― new monasteries were built, and land grants were made.

The first known Benedictine monastery in Istria, a northwestern province of Croatia, existed in 860 A.D. The monastery and its church were dedicated to Saint Mary de Cereto near Pula. Thus, four known Benedictine monasteries in Croatia date from the 9th century. Perhaps, there were some other such monasteries, but (for now) that cannot be claimed with certainty.

In the 10th century, monasteries and monastic life increased rapidly, especially toward the end of the century when Croatia became an independent kingdom. There were more than 30 Benedictine monasteries in the country in the 11th century. The peak of the monastic growth was reached in the 13th century. Croatians had more than 60 monasteries at that time. However, from that point on the number of Benedictines and their active monasteries began to decline.

The reasons for the decline of Benedictines in Croatia were similar to those in Western Europe. Mainly, the appearance of new religious orders, namely the Franciscans and Dominicans. In addition, the Hungarian rulers, with whom the kingdom of Croatia shared a royal union, did not have an interest in supporting monasteries in Croatian lands because the monasteries were not only religious but also cultural centers and had an important social and political sway.

The decline of Benedictines in the Croatian lands was so great that at the beginning of the 19th century there were only four active monasteries. Even those four were closed in 1807 and 1808, and the Benedictine monks were banished by the French imperial administration that controlled a large part of Croatia at the time. Towards the end of the 19th century, some Italian and German Benedictines tried to organize new communities in Croatia but with limited success. Those well-intentioned individuals returned to their native lands after the First World War. However, in the mid-1960s, a new Benedictine male community sprouted by the efforts and dedication of a few native men. The ruins of an old monastery on the island of Pašman were repaired, and the centuries long tradition of Benedictine monks was revived in Croatia.

Cultural activities

The first centers of learning among the Croatians were the result of the Benedictine mission. The cathedral schools that emerged in time were also under the sway of the Benedictine monks.

Documents from the time of the first Croatian king, Tomislav (crowned in 925 A.D.), bear witness that Pope John X urged the nobility to send their children to the Benedictine schools to learn the Latin language. A regional Church council in Split (925 A.D.) instructs all to send not only their children but also servants to monastic schools.

Furthermore, the first Benedictine monastery for women opened in the 10th century. By the 13th century their number grew to about twenty-five. A number of such monasteries had schools for girls in which young women were taught, besides reading and writing, mainly sewing, weaving, and other practical trades.

It should not be forgotten that the Benedictine schools were free of charge and that the monasteries of both genders received pilgrims and travelers, had shelters for the homeless, and on certain annual holy days and feasts gave gifts of foodstuffs. The charitable works were an essential part of Benedictine life.

The earliest books among the Croatians were transcribed or written in Benedictine monasteries. Every monastic community had a library and librarians, scribes, and writers. The Benedictine scribes and writers were also in the service of local bishops, churches, and nobility. A monastery that had the best writing equipment and the largest number of scribes in Croatia was the abbey of St. Krševan in Zadar.

Benedictines and liturgy in the Slavonic language

Most of the Benedictine monasteries along the Adriatic Sea coastline, especially in its northern part, used the old Slavonic language in the liturgy from the earliest times. The oldest document that bears witness to this fact dates from the year 925 A.D. Namely, in that year, as mentioned earlier, a regional church council was held in Split, and at the council, bishops forbade the use of the Slavonic language in the liturgy except in monasteries. It means, therefore, that this language was in use for a longer period of time, at least in certain parts of the country and in some of the Benedictine monasteries. By implication, the use of Slavonic in liturgy had a strong tradition; otherwise, Rome would have banned it altogether.

One of the most important bishops in the Croatian political and religious life of the time was Grgur of Nin. He was a Benedictine monk and a fighter for the use of the Slavonic language in liturgy. Because of his steadfast stand on the language issue, he was transferred from Nin to the town of Skradin, and his influence was greatly limited. The struggle for the Slavonic liturgy, however, continued. Towards the end of the 10th century, a bishop and a Benedictine monk went to Rome to argue the case of the use of the Slavonic language in sacred liturgy.

Numerous liturgical books and documents were written in the old Slavonic language and Glagolitic script. In the middle of the 13th century, the pope reaffirmed the law that some of the monasteries could use the Slavonic language in the liturgy “according to the customs of their predecessors.”

In the 14th century, Czech king Karlo IV, with the help of the Croatian Benedictines, introduced the Old Slavonic liturgy in the Abby Emaus in Prague. Scribes from monasteries in Croatia were sent to prepare the liturgical books to be used in the abbey. One of the scribes was a monk named John. He and other Croatian monks who came to Prague became known among the Czechs as “pisarzi harvatsk” (Croatian scribes).

The pope Clement VI, who granted permission to the king Charles IV to use the Slavonic language in the sacred liturgy was a Benedictine himself. In the document the pope mentions the fact that many monasteries in Croatia celebrate the whole liturgy in the Slavonic language.

Conclusion

Benedictines in Croatia had a crucial influence on the development not only of the religious and cultural life of the Croatians but even on their political orientation as well. They brought and cultivated among them the Christian religion and Catholic institutions, schools, libraries, and all sorts of knowledge. They kept alive the Slavonic liturgical language until the Vatican II Church council in the 1960s. Up to that time, the use of the “native” language in Roman liturgy in Croatia was unique in the Catholic Church. That was an important element in preserving the Croatian national identity. Interestingly, the Croatian Benedictines were very staunch in guarding the Croatian native tradition, and, at the same time, they were a steadfast bridge between the church in Croatia and Rome.

Ante Čuvalo (May 1970)